Historical Comparative Research depends upon some factors. list down those?- Ch#40
Historical-comparative research is suited for examining the combination of societal factors that produce a specific outcome (e.g., civil war). It is also appropriate for comparing entire social system to see what is common across societies and what is unique, and to study long term change.
Using APA style, describe quotations, i-e what is their format in writting a litrature view?- Ch#45
Yeh book main se dekho
Parts of executive summary 5marks Pag#161
The summary should be written only after the rest of the report is completed. It represents the essence of the report. Two to three pages are generally sufficient for a properly condensed summary. (For very big reports which run into number of volumes, like the one finds in the feasibility reports of big projects, the summary may be very big.) The summary should be written to be self-sufficient. In fact, it is not uncommon for a summary to be detached from the report and circulated it.
The summary contains four elements:
1. The objectives of the report are stated, including the most important background and specific purposes of the project.
2. The major results are presented. The key results regarding each purpose should be included.
3. The conclusions that are based on the results. There should be logical interpretation of the results which could lead to the stated conclusions.
4. The recommendations or suggestions for action, which are based on the conclusions. The recommendations must logically emerge from the results.
Note: In many reports you may see that the executive summary comes first which is followed by the table of contents.
For students writing their thesis, in place of executive summary, they write an abstract of their thesis.
This abstract is usually of one or two paragraphs. Abstract has information on the topic, the research problem, the basic findings, and any ‘unusual’ research design or data collection features.
Parts of research report 3marks
The Makeup of the Report – the Report Parts
• Prefatory parts
1. Title fly page
2. Title page
3. Letter of transmittal
4. Letter of authorization
5. Table of contents
6. Executive summary
• Main body
1. Introduction
2. Methodology
3. Results
4. Conclusions and recommendations
5. References
• Appended parts
1. Data collection forms (questionnaires, checklist, interview guide, other forms)
2. Detailed calculations
3. General tables
4. Other support material
5. Bibliography, if needed
Components of Bivariate Tables 3marks
Bivariate Tables
The bivariate contingency table is widely used. The table is based on cross-tabulation (crossclassification); that is the cases are organized in the table on the basis of two variables at the same time. A contingency table is formed by cross-tabulating the two or more variables. It is contingent because the cases in each category of a variable get distributed into each category of a second variable. The table distributes cases into categories of multiple variables at the same time and shows how the cases, by the category of one variable, are “contingent upon” the categories of the other variables.
How we can use secondary analysis
Secondary analysis is a special case of existing statistics; it is reanalysis of previously collected survey or other data that was originally gathered by others. As opposed to primary research (e.g., experiments, surveys, and content analysis), the focus is on analyzing rather than collecting data.
Secondary analysis is increasingly used by researchers. It is relatively inexpensive; it permits Comparisons across groups, nations, or time; it facilitates replication; and permits asking about issues not thought by the original researchers. There are several questions the researcher interested in secondary research should ask: Are the secondary data appropriate for the research question? What theory and hypothesis can a researcher use with the data? Is the researcher already familiar with the substantive area? Does the researcher understand how the data were originally gathered and coded? Large-scale data collection is expensive and difficult. The cost and time required for major national surveys that uses rigorous techniques are prohibitive for most researchers. Fortunately, the organization, preservation, and dissemination of major survey data sets have improved. Today, there are archives of past surveys open to researchers (e.g., data on Population Census of Pakistan, Demographic Survey of Pakistan).
53) Reference format 5 marks.
Author: Abraham Maslow
Name of Journal: International journal of psychology
Title: Need hierarchy theory
Page number: 20-23
Year of publish: 1946
What is bibliography and reference. 3 Lecture No 45
• A bibliography is the listing of the works that are relevant to the topic of research interest arranged in alphabetical order of the last names of authors.
• A reference list is a subset of the bibliography, which includes details of all the citations used in the literature survey and elsewhere in the report, arranged again, in the alphabetical order of the last names of authors.
What do we write in executive summary of a research report?
Executive Summary of Research Report:
It is very important part of the report. And it is observed that mostly managers read summary report normally and rest members read whole report.
The summary contains four elements:
1. The objectives of the report are stated, including the most important background and specific purposes of the project.
2. The major results are presented. The key results regarding each purpose should be included.
3. The conclusions that are based on the results. There should be logical interpretation of the results which could lead to the stated conclusions.
4. The recommendations or suggestions for action, which are based on the conclusions. The recommendations must logically emerge from the results.
STA630 Subjective Question (Solved) (Part 1 of 2)
1) Involvement with deviants is the Ethical dilemma of field Research how would explain (Marks 3) Page 140 Ch.39
Ethical Dilemmas of Field research
The direct personal involvement of a field researcher in the social lives of other people raises many ethical dilemmas. The dilemmas arise when the researcher is alone in the field and has little time to make a moral decision. Although he or she may be aware of general ethical issues before entering the field, they arise unexpectedly in the course of observing and interacting in the field.
Deception and confidentiality
Deception: Deception arises in several ways in field research: The research may be covert; or may assume a false role, name, or identity; or may mislead members in some way. The most hotly debated of the ethical issues arising from deception is that of covert versus overt field research. Some support it and see it as necessary for entering into and aiming a full knowledge of many areas of social life.
Others oppose it and argue that it undermines a trust between researchers and society. Although its moral status is questionable, there are some field sites or activities that can only be studied covertly.
One may have to look into the cost and benefit equation; where the researcher is the best judge.
Covert research is never preferable and never easier than overt research because of the difficulties of maintaining a front and the constant fear of getting caught.
Confidentiality: A researcher learns intimate knowledge that is given in confidence. He or she has a moral obligation to uphold the confidentiality of data. This includes keeping information confidential from others in the field and disguising members’ names in field notes.
2) How Researchers locate evidence in historical comparative research (Marks 3) Ch.No. 41
Data and Evidence in Historical context
Historical-comparative researchers draw on four types historical evidence or data:
1. Primary sources;
2. Secondary sources;
3. Running records; and
4. Recollections.
Traditional historians rely heavily on primary sources. H-C researchers often use secondary sources or the different data types in combination.
3) Does historical comparative Research follow scientific approach or not Discuss (Marks 5) Ch.No. 41
Historical-Comparative research follows scientific approach:
• Can be a survey of events in history – could be through the study of documents. Organizations generally document themselves, so if one is studying the development of some organization he/she should examine its official documents: charters, policy statements, speeches by the leaders, and so on. Often, official government documents provide the data needed for analysis. To better appreciate the history of race relations in the United States on e could examine 200 years of laws and court cases involving race.
One could also do the communication analysis of different documents related to a particular issue (like the communication among the leaders of Pakistan movement through their letters, communication between the migrants to a new country and their relatives back in their country of origin)
Researcher could also get lot of information by interviewing people who may recall historical events (like interviewing participants in the Pakistan movement).
• Historical-Comparative researchers mostly do a longitudinal analysis i.e. look into the developmental processes of the issues under reference.
• Historical –Comparative researchers make cross-cultural comparisons of the social forms or economic form as well as the developmental processes of those forms, aiming at making generalizations.
4) Briefly explain the important of measurement and coding in non Research with the help of example (Marks 5) Pag.99 Ch.29
Measurement and Coding
Careful measurement is crucial in content analysis because a researcher takes different and murky symbolic communication and turns it into precise, objective, quantitative data. He or she carefully designs and documents the procedures for coding to make replication possible. For example, a researcher wants to determine how frequently television dramas portray elderly characters in terms of negative stereotypes. He or she develops a measure of the construct “negatively stereotypes of the elderly.” The conceptualization may result in a list of stereotypes or negative generalizations about older people (e.g., senile, forgetful, frail, hard of hearing, slow, ill, inactive, conservative, etc.) that do not accurately reflect the elderly. Another example could be negative stereotypes about women.
5) What are the advantages of cluster sampling (Marks 5) Pag.94 Ch.28
This sampling technique is cheap, quick and easy. Instead of sampling an entire country when using simple random sampling, the researcher can allocate his limited resources to the few randomly selected clusters or areas when using cluster samples. the researcher can also increase his sample size with this technique.
From all the different type of probability sampling, this technique is the least representative of the population.
This is also a probability sampling technique with a possibility of high sampling error.
Economy: The two major concerns of expenditure when it comes to sampling are traveling and listing. They are greatly reduced when it comes to cluster sampling.
Less costly.
Don't need a list.
6) Do u explain inferences from non-reactive data by using secondary survey data 3 (page No.129, Ch#37)
Inferences from Non-Reactive Data:
A researcher’s ability to infer causality or to test a theory on the basis of non-reactive data is limited. It is difficult to use unobtrusive measures to establish temporal order and eliminate alternative explanations. In content analysis, a researcher cannot generalize from the content to its effects on those who read the text, but can only use the correlation logic of survey research to show an association among variables. Unlike the case of survey research, a researcher does not ask respondents direct questions to measure variables, but relies on the information available in thee text.
7) Research process, once u collect the data how u would perform the scoring index activity 3 marks(Page No.103 Ch#30)
• Remember the measurement of job satisfaction. (dimensions and elements).
• Number of statements on each element.
• Likert scale (5) response categories: Strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree, s. disagree.
• There are positive and negative statements.
• For positive statements, score S. agree = 5, agree = 4, neutral = 3, disagree = 2, s. disagree = 1.
• For negative statements reverse the scoring.
8) 51) Would u explain spontaneity and confession by using secondary data? Give example each 5 marks Pag 129. Ch.37
Spontaneity: The spontaneous actions or feelings can be recorded when they occurred rather than at a time specified by the researcher. If the respondent was keeping a diary, he or she may have been recording spontaneous feelings about a subject whenever he or she was inspired to do so. The contents of such personal recording could be analyzed later on.
Confessions: A person may be more likely to confess in a document, particularly one to be read only after his or her death, than in an interview or mailed questionnaire study. Thus a study of documents such as diaries, posthumously published autobiographies, and suicide notes may be the only way to obtain such information.
9) Do u know about number and duration in FDG discussion 5 marks
Number and duration of sessions: The number of focus group sessions to be conducted depends upon project needs, resources, and whether new information is still coming from the sessions (that is, whether contrasting views from various groups in the community are still emerging). One should plan to conduct at least two different focus group discussions for each subgroup (for example two for males and two for females). For duration, a focus group session typically lasts up to an hour and a half. Generally the first session with a particular type of group is longer than the following ones because all of the information is new. Thereafter, if it becomes clear that all the groups have the same opinion on particular topics, the facilitator may be able to move the discussion along more quickly to other topics that still elicit new points of view.
10) Suggest the appropriate data collection tool that can be used by the research organization. Give the solid rationale for your answer.
Secondary data are usually historical, already assembled, and do not require access to respondents or subjects. Many types of information about the social and behavioral world have been collected and are available to the researcher. Some information is in the form of statistical documents (books, reports) that contain numerical information. Other information is in the form of published compilations available in a library or on computerized records.
Secondary data may be collected by large bureaucratic organization like the Bureau of Statistics or other government or private agencies. These data may have been collected for policy decisions or as part of public service.
11) What is bracketing with regard to Historical comparative research? Ch.40 & 41
H-C researchers attempt to read primary sources with the eyes and assumptions of a contemporary who lived in the past. This means “bracketing,” or holding back knowledge of subsequent events and modern values. “If you do not read the primary sources with an open mind and an intention to get inside the minds of the writings and look at things the way they saw them, you are wasting time.” For example, when reading a source produced by a slaveholder, moralizing against slavery or faulting the author for not seeing its evil is not worthwhile.
12) How would you differentiate accretion and count behaviors in Non Reactive Research? Pag.124. Ch.36
Accretion: Accumulation of physical evidence suggests behavior. A researcher examines the soft drink cans or bottles in the garbage collection. That might indicate the brands and types of soft drinks that are very popular.
Count Behaviors: Counting how many people do something can be informative. For example a researcher may count the number of men and women who come to a full stop and those who come to a rolling stop at a traffic stop sign. This suggests gender difference in driving behavior.
13) Treatment of Independent variable? Ch.06
Independent Variable:
An independent variable is the variable you have control over, what you can choose and manipulate. It is usually what you think will affect the dependent variable. In some cases, you may not be able to manipulate the independent variable. It may be something that is already there and is fixed, something you would like to evaluate with respect to how it affects something else, the dependent variable like color, kind, time.
Example: You are interested in how stress affects heart rate in humans. Your independent variable would be the stress and the dependent variable would be the heart rate. You can directly manipulate stress levels in your human subjects and measure how those stress levels change heart rate.
14) Pretest and posttest experimental and control group design? Pag.118, Ch.34
Pretest and Posttest Experimental and Control Group Design: Two groups, one control group and the other experimental group, are formed randomly. Both the groups are exposed to pretest and posttest.
The experimental group is exposed to treatment while the control group is not. Measuring the difference between the differences in the post- and pretests of the two groups would give the net effects of the treatment.
Experimental Group: Pretest (O1) X Posttest (O2)
Control Group: Pretest (O3) - Posttest (O4)
Randomization used for setting up the group.
[(O2 – O1) – (O4 – O3)] = Treatment effect (could be anywhere between 0 to -1 or +1).
16) How would you differentiate between History Effect and Mechanical Loss in Experimental research? Pag.120.Ch.
History Effect: A specific event in the external environment occurring between the first and second measurement that is beyond the control of the experimenter and that affects the validity of an experiment. Advertisement of a particular product (mineral water) and its sale is affected by an event in the society (contamination of drinking water). The researcher does not have control on such happenings which have an impact on the X and Y relationship.
Mechanical Loss: A problem may be experienced due to equipment failure. For example, in an experiment if the subjects are told that their behavior is being video taped, and during the experiment the video equipment failed to work for some subjects, then the validity of the results could become doubtful.
17) Write a note on any three varieties of non reactive observations. Pag#124 Ch:36
Varieties of Non-Reactive Observations
Non-reactive measures are varied, and researchers have been creative in inventing indirect ways to measures behaviors. Because the measures have little in common except being non-reactive, they are best learned through examples like:
Physical Traces:
• Erosion: Wear and tear suggests a greater use. For example, a researcher examines children’s toys at a children’s play centre that were purchased at the same time. Worn out toys suggest greater interest of children in them.
• Accretion: Accumulation of physical evidence suggests behavior. A researcher examines the soft drink cans or bottles in the garbage collection. That might indicate the brands and types of soft drinks that are very popular.
Archives:
• Running Records: Regularly produced public records may reveal lot of information. For example, a researcher may examine marriage records for brides’ and grooms’ recorded ages.
The differences might indicate that males marrying younger females are greater than the other way around.
• Other Records: Irregular or private records can reveal a lot. For example, a researcher may look into the number of reams of paper purchased by a college principal’s office for the last 10 years and compare it with students’ enrollment.
Observations:
• External Appearance: How people appear may indicate social factors. For example, a researcher watches students to see whether they are more likely to wear their college’s colors and symbols after the college team won or lost.
• Count Behaviors: Counting how many people do something can be informative. For example a researcher may count the number of men and women who come to a full stop and those who come to a rolling stop at a traffic stop sign. This suggests gender difference in driving behavior.
• Time Duration: How long people take to do things may indicate their intention. For example a researcher may measure how long men and women pause in front of a particular painting.
Time taken may indicate their interest in the painting.
18) How would you differentiate between Frequency Distribution Table and Bivariate Table? Pag#105 Ch:31
For example we have data of 400 students. We can summarize the data on the gender of the students at a glance with raw count or a frequency distribution
Table 1: Frequency distribution of students
Gender Frequency Percent
Male 300 75
Female 100 25
Total 400 100
We can present the same information in a graphic form. Some common types of graphic presentations are the histograms, bar chart, and pie chart.
For example, a bivariate table shows that young people show more favorable attitude towards women empowerment. But the relationship between age and attitude towards women empowerment may be spurious because men and women may have different attitudes. A bivariate table has 12 cells, the partials have 3 X 12 = 36 cells. An average of five cases per cell is recommended, so the researcher will need 5 X 36 = 180 cases at minimum.
19) Being a researcher, how would you criticize the use of Secondary Data in research? Ch#37
Bias: Many documents used in research were not originally intended for research purposes. The various goals and purposes for which documents are written can bias them in various ways.
Selective survival: Since documents are usually written on paper, they do not withstand the elements well unless care is taken to preserve them.
Incompleteness: Many documents provide incomplete account to the researcher who has had no prior experience with or knowledge of the events or behavior discussed.
Lack of availability of documents: In addition to thee bias, incompleteness, and selective survival of documents, there are many areas of study for which no documents are available. In many cases information simply was never recorded.
Limited to verbal behavior: By definition, documents provide information only about respondent’s verbal behavior, and provide no direct information on the respondent’s nonverbal behavior, either that of the document’s author or other characters in the document.
Sampling bias: One of the problems of bias occurs because persons of lower educational or income levels are less likely to be represented in the sampling frames
Lack of standardized format: many other documents, particularly personal documents have no standard format.
Data must be adjusted for comparability over time: the change in measuring distance, temperature, currency, and even literacy in Pakistan.
What are different measures of central tendency are used define each.Pag#105
Three measures of central tendency, or measures of the center of the frequency distribution: mean,
median and mode, which are often called averages (a less precise and less clear way to say the same thing). The mode is simply the most common or frequently occurring number. The median is the middle point. The mean also called the arithmetic average, is the most widely used measure of central tendency.
What are the functions of recorders?
Functions of the Recorder
The recorder should keep a record of the content of the discussion as well as emotional reactions and important aspects of group interaction. Assessment of the emotional tone of the meeting and the group process will enable the researcher to judge the validity of the information collected during the FGD.
Record the following:
• Date, time, and place:
• Names and characteristics of participants:
• General description of the group dynamics (level of participation, presence of a dominant participant, level of interest):
• Opinions of participants, recorded as much as possible in their own words, especially for key statements: and
• Vocabulary used, particularly in focus group discussions that are intended to assist in developing questionnaire or other material as stipulated under the topic.
What is the different ethical issue related to validity Ch#13
Ethical Issues
• Remain to be issues.
• Local norms suggest what ought to be done under the given circumstances.
• Codes of ethics developed to guide researchers and sponsors.
• Review Boards and peer groups help sorting out ethical dilemmas.
What do u know about content analysis?-3 Pag#125 Ch#36
Content Analysis
Content analysis is a technique for gathering and analyzing the content of a text. The content refers to words, meanings, pictures, symbols, ideas, themes, or any message that can be communicated. The text is anything written, visual, or spoken that serves as a medium of communication. Possible artifacts for study could be books, newspaper or magazine articles, advertisements, poems, letters, laws,
constitutions, dramas, speeches, official documents, films or videotapes, musical lyrics, photographs, articles of clothing, or works of arts. All these works may be called as documents. The documents can be:
• Personal – letters, diary, autobiography.
• Non-personal – interoffice memos, official documents, proceedings of a meeting.
• Mass media – newspapers, magazines, fiction, films, songs, poems, works of arts.
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